Recreation, Sports and the Arts: What Has Changed Since 2001 to 2018?

Recreation, Sports and the Arts: What Has Changed Since 2001?

Julie Ann Racino

Cornell and Syracuse University 

November 12, 2018

         In 1979, we began the first community integration programs (See, wikipedia) with community agencies (e.g., United Way network, Neighborhood centers, Folksmarch) making possible the participation of parents and their children who earlier were in institutions or at best, confined to a bed (or mat) in a home.  By then, the Arc-US and UCPA (1940s and 1950s) already had a lengthy history of advocacy, and began programs of education for their children and were already deeply involved with US courts at all levels.

         By the 1980s, the university sector (e.g., community rehabilitation, special education, child and family studies) began to document these efforts, ranging from camp integration to a range of leisure and recreation activities (e.g., community choir, social clubs). These integration activities influenced the elite and extremely life changing Special Olympics begun by Eunice Shriver to form a unified sports branch. Later developments included the International Best Buddies of Anthony Kennedy Shriver, active worldwide today. Examples of federally supported (education research and training) included:

 

Walker, P. (1994). Promoting inclusive recreation and leisure opportunities for adults.  In: M.S. Moon (Ed.), Making School and Recreation Fun for Everyone:Places and Ways to Integrate. (pp. 163-178). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. 

Walker, P. (nd). Developing individualized supports: The experience of two chapters of the arc in rural New York State. Community Integration Report: National Arc Newsletter. Arlington, TX: The Arc-US.

Walker, P. & Edinger, B. (1988, May). The kid from Cabin 17. Camping Magazine, 18-21.

Walker, P. & Shoultz, B. (nd). Supporting children and youth with disabilities in integrated recreation and leisure activities. Community Integration Report. Arlington, TX: The Arc-US.

To explain, Betsy Edinger was hire through an award to Julie Ann Racino at TLS (Transitional Living Services) and Pam Walker was hired as a student-employee through our Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration at Syracuse University. Bonnie Shoultz was hired through the second refunding of the RRTC on Community Integration and managed a contract with Arc-US.

        Today, many programs, especially with "generic community sites"  and community participation are termed inclusion (e.g., inclusion and the Girl Scouts).  However, the NGOs of yesteryear which struggled with their service versus advocacy "roles and departments", are now major managed health care providers in the US still filed as 501.c.3 (charities). The future of inclusion, in the age post-diversity, no longer is a debate of segregation versus integration, but often a question of what the NGOs and governments will do, support and fund. 

       Leisure and recreation theories and practice were often termed therapeutic recreation with children's play therapy, and recreation professionals and volunteers (e.g., city park programs, ballsports) were and often are separately educated. These professions were involved for decades in approaches to human ecology, in deinstitutionalization (e.g., Pedlar, 1990), in sociology and leisure, in family and community health (Neff et al, 2000), and in the gender and ethnic analyses of "sports and recreation" (e.g., Sparhawk et al, 1989). Examples from that period were:

Carter, M. (1998). Increased professionalism: An experience from the United States. Journal of Leisurability, 25(2): 20--25.

Compton, D.M. (1997). Issues in Therapeutic Recreation. Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing Co.

Godbey, G. (1997). Recreation and parks in a changing world: Becoming a health service. Parks and Recreation, 32(3): 91-106.  

Hemingway, J. (1996). Leisure: The recovery of freedom in leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 28: 27-43.

Henderson, K.A. (1994). Perspectives on analyzing gender, women, and leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 28: 27-43.

Neff, L.J., Ainsworth, B., Wheeler, F., Krumwiede, S., & Trepal, A. (2000). Assessment of trail use in a community park. Family and Community Health, 23(3): 76-84. 

Pawlcwski, A., Holmes, F., & Hafner, R.J. (1993, July). Wilderness therapy for psychiatric disorders. Mental Health in Australia, 5(1): 8-14.

Pedlar, A. (1990). Deinstitutionalization and the role of the therapeutic recreation in social integration. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 15(2): 101-112. 

Racino, J. A. (2000). Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers. 

Schleien, S., Rynders, J., & Green, F. (1994). Facilitating integration in recreation environments. In: M. Hayden & B. Abery (Eds.), Challenges for a Service System in Transition. (pp. 121-145). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Sparhawk, R., Leslie, M., Turbow, P., & Rose, Z. (1989). American Women in Sport: 1887-1987: A 100 year Chronology. London: The Scarecrow Press. 

       In the health care fields, recreation was often funded through a "blanket" residential habilitation or even "prevocational" habilitation category (habilitation was in MLTSS-managed Long Term Services and Supports in 2013) under the home and community-based Medicaid Waivers. In addition, recreation itself may be pursued through "friendships or relationships" (Perske, Lutfiyya, Amado) which often results in the need to strengthen "tracks to Special Olympics" (See, also Paralympics, and integrated road racing, charity runs). Separate recreation teams have also been established through specialized service agencies (See, Square Market/Utica Monday Nite), and programs from traditional clubhouses (e.g., Besacom & Zipple, 1995), adult day services, and aging may also be the base for community integration or inclusion. For example:

Besacom, V. & Zipple, A.M. (1995). From day program to clubhouse: Practical strategies for supporting the transformation. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, 18(3): 7-15. 

Gold, D. (nd). Challenges to Integrated Leisure and to Friendships with Labelled People. Toronto, CA: Community Participation Consulting. 

Janicki, M. & Keefe, R. (1992). Casebook: Integration Experiences. Albany, NY: New York State Office of Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities. 

Lutfiyya, Z.M. (1991). "A feeling of being connected" Friendships between people with  and without disabilities. Disability, Handicap, and Society, 6: 233-245. 

Perske, R. (nd, 1988). Circle of Friends: People with Disabilities and Their Friends Enrich One Another. Nashville, TN: Author. 

Pomes, L., Faus, L.L., Fredericks, B., Reiman, J., Neal, J., & White, J. (1998). Supporting deaf-blind students to develop social relationships. In: L.H. Meyer et al (Eds.), Making Friends: The Influence of Culture and Development. (pp. 299-316). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. 

Strully, J. & Strully, C. (1992). The struggle toward inclusion and the fulfillment of friendship. In: J. Nisbet (Ed.), Natural Supports in School, at Work, and in the Community for People with Severe Disabilities. (pp. 165-177). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. 

     Other strands of "research and education" in rehabilitation had and have roots in nutrition or physical activity and fitness, especially with First Lady Michelle Obama's fight against obesity in America. However, often these approaches "shift to other dedicated professionals" which includes the professions of physical therapy (major offices and health care billings), chiropracty (post-X rays, new educational requirements), nutritionists (often employed in intermediate care facilities and hospitals-the classic 1,200 calorie diet), and occupational therapy to public health. The original intent might be closer to the macarena/folk dance, daily aerobics to dance, choosing new veggie in the grocery store, or having a modified physical therapy routine (e.g., pushup and situps).

      New practices were the "use of mood music" for relaxation, meditation and yoga, change in nutrition in publicly available foods (e.g., calories, fat content), group board games in the evening (e.g., cognitive, social), diversity of fresh produce, modernized home delivered meals, and new standards for physical activity (e.g., nautilus, pedometers) incorporated into health plans.  New practices were often developed through the eras of wellness and health promotion (e.g., bicycling versus autos); however, often with attention to specific "disabilities" (e.g., diabetes and scuba). In the prior period, beginning in the 1970s, the struggle between a cook in a group home (then apartments), and personnel cooking with house members, involved issues of nutrition, among others. Examples of this period (pre-public health gloves in restaurants):

American Public Health Association. (1990). Healthy Communities 2000: Model Standards. (3rd edition). Washington, DC: Author. 

Applegate, L. (2001, July). Nutrition: Liquid energy. Runner's World, 36(7): 24, 26. 

Feury, M. (2000, September). Walk of the weight. Woman's Day, 74: 54-61.  

Gaynor, M.L. (1999). Sounds of Healing: A Physician Reveals the Therapeutic Power of Sound, Voice and Music. NY, NY: Broadway Books.  

Kabat-Zinn, J., Lipworth, L., & Burney, R. (1985). The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8(2): 163-190.

Prosterman, S.A. ( July/August). Safe scuba diving with diabetes. Diabetes Self-Management, 104-108. 

Siegel, P., Brackbill, R., & Heath, B. (1995, May). The epidemiology of walking for exercise: Implications for promoting activity among sedentary groups. American Journal of Public Health, 85(5): 706-710.

Spiller, C.S. (2001, July). The best veggies for you and how to cook them. Natural Health Magazine, 66-69, 105-107. 

Tomberlin, J.A. (1990). Physical therapy in community re-entry: Assessment and achievement of physical fitness. In: J. S. Kreutzer & P. Wehman (Eds.), Community Integration Following Traumatic Brain Injury. (pp. 29-46). Baltimore, ND; Paul H. Brookes. 

      Inclusion, community integration  ("community and disability") and "sports for all" continues to be a challenge as "racial segregation" (highly paid at televised sports) is even seen as valued (e.g., football, soccer, baseball, basketball), and side-by-side sports, especially by gender (with sports hierarchies) are a common base for competitive endeavours. The Motorsports research reports describe "traditionally male sports" (i.e., auto racing, automobile driving, dirt bikes and motorcycles) and what in disability was termed a disability hero (as the centerpiece woman of NASCAR)!!

      The independent living approaches of the World Institute on Disability represented the comprehensive approach to housing, education, employment, voting/public life, health, "child care and shopping" (businesses), and recreation/arts and culture (See, UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2006, 2018; PInterest, Community and Policy Studies, 2012). The 1993 bibliography by Susan Brown still best exemplars this comprehensive "community and disability" approach (integration and independent living).

     The Paralympics (world events) still are often referred to as an elite class which, however, operates separately from the "main or regular Olympics". Thus, as anticipated a "disability culture" or way of understanding the world developed over time (e.g., Brown, 2003) and is centerpieced at the university education schools today. These cultures may mirror the "larger society" (similar competitive approaches in Paralympics) or may be in diverse or antithetical positions (e.g., "ugly is beautiful") to that society. However, disability culture speakers, as often civil rights activists, do expect to be able to travel to their lecture sites, among others.

Biklen, D. (1987, March). The culture of policy: Disability images and their analogues in public policy. Policy Studies Journal, 15(3): 515-565. 

Braunstein, M. (1993/1998). In search of disability culture. In: B. Corbett & J. Dobbs (Eds.), New Mobility Magazine's Spinal Network. Malibu, CA: Marimar Communications.

Brown, S. (1993). An Independent Living Approach to Disability Policy Studies. Oakland, CA: World Institute on Disability. 

Brown, S.E. (2003). Movie Stars and Sensuous Scars: Essays on the Journey from Disability Shame to Disability Pride. NY, NY: People with Disabilities Press. 

Forliti, A. (2000, December). Rules of the road: Women drivers nurtured in racing school. ABC News.com. 

Jensen, T. (2000, August). Winning is everything. NASCAR Illustrated, XIX(8): 92-96.

Katz, E. (1994). The national institute of art and disabilities: An art center for adults with developmental disabilities. Mental Retardation, 32(2): 137-140.  Now, Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, and Inclusion.

Mirzceff, N. (1997). Blindness and art. In: L. J. David (Ed.), The Disability Studies Reader. (pp. 382-398). NY, NY: Routledge. 

Moylan, N.F. (2001, May). Wheelchair whimseys: Here I am world. Mohawk Valley Women: A Publication For, by and About Women. (p.16).  Rome, NY: Mohawk Valley Media.

Racino, J. (2003). Motorsports Research Series, Reports 1-5.  Rome, NY: Community and Policy Studies. Square Market/Community and Policy Studies.

Rome Art and Community Center. (1997, September 30-October 4). Exceptional Artworks: Events Brochure. Rome, NY: Author. 

Screen Actors' Guild Committee for Performers with Disabilities (2001, May 3). Everything Production Needs to Know When Performers with Disabilities Are Hired. CA: Author. Link to UCPA (United Cerebral Palsy Association) National-Net. 

Thompson, R.G. (1997). Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture and Literature. NY, NY: Columbia University Press. 

...(1994). Fodor's great American vacations for travelers with disabilities. Fodor's Travel Publications. 

Young, D. (1998). The delicate art of flying in a power wheelchair. In: B. Corbett, J. Dobbs, et al. (Eds.), Spinal Network. Malibu, CA: Marimar Communications.

A Bibliography on Recreation, Sports and the Arts was prepared in 2001, and National Parks and Recreation Association has discussed inclusion and inclusion policies. Special Olympics has celebrated its 50th Anniversary, and over four decades of publications since the 1980s are available online and in archives. Medicaid and Medicare as health care reform are current in 2018, and Education has increased its funding in states in the US.

      Current governmental emphasis has been on safety and security within the context of all walks of life, and the Health and Human Services Administration is in proposed reorganization by the current federal administration. Independent living continues to be supported as a framework, and has changed its nature and organization in 2018. Multiple state departmental policies could be involved (e.g, OASAS, Office of Alcohol and Substance Abuse Services, NY), and the newest factors are the corrections fields and its implications.

Julie Ann Racino, Health and Human Services Administration
American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) 2018

For the running and racing for "special populations", the Boilermaker Road Race is scheduled for September 2021, and an article on "traumatic brain injury and running" was featured in the March 2015 issue of Prevention Magazine ("Nobody expected me to survive, let alone win." ).